Esters

Esters describe a group of organic compounds formed when a reaction takes place involving an alcohol and an acid. Ethanol is an alcohol and acetic acid an acid and when they react the products are the ester ethyl acetate and water. Esterification is a term describing the reaction. Esters in turn react with water and yield an alcohol and an acid.1

There are compounds containing phosphorus some of which are esters. They are important in biochemistry. Go here for a site with related details.2

Reference:

1. The Columbia Encyclopedia; The online version; Columbia University Press

2. Nomenclature of Phosphorus-Containing Compounds of Biochemical Importance

Searches: Keywords and Relevancy

There is useful information to be obtained from the article Ten Tips for Optimizing a Web Page for Search Engines. A linked subsection of it, 2. Incorporate the Keywords in Your Site's Content, is the focus of this blog entry.

Including the right keywords within a website page is important in determining how a search engine will respond to it. Will a search engine determine that a webpage is relevant to a search query? Here are some factors singled out in the linked article:

* Higher significance is afforded to what appears first.

* 250 words of text is considered a minimal benchmark for relevancy.

* Be natural and keep within a two to three keyword strategy.

The Unexpected

There are occassions when business requires a written response to a sudden problem. The problem can be enforcement of a local ordinance, an insurance claim, an unforthcoming supplier or an irate customer. A business owner may be an effective writer or may have an employee with an aptitude for writing. If not being able to locate a writer on the spur of the moment can be trying. An attorney will do it but usually for a high fee. Unless the legal issues are substantive this may not be the way to go.

An alternative is to farm out the assignment when a need arises. A proficient writer willing to work as needed will do. With the advent of computers and the internet working arrangements that would not have been previously feasible are now possible between parties separated by large distances. If you can print out a download you can benefit from the services of a writing specialist. Devote your time to what you do best and when the occassional glitch comes your way contact a professional.

Alkanes

The Columbia Encyclopedia, an online encyclopedia, has an entry on hydrocarbon which does a good job of explaining alkanes. Hydrocarbons are organic compounds. They are composed of only two elements- carbon and hydrogen. There are sub-groups within hydrocarbons one of which is called alkanes. Quoting from the linked encyclopedic entry:

The alkanes are a homologous series of saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons. The first and simplest member of this series is methane, CH4; the series is sometimes called the methane series. Each successive member of a homologous series of hydrocarbons has one more carbon and two more hydrogen atoms in its molecule than the preceding member. The second alkane is ethane, C2H6, and the third is propane, C3H8. Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2 (where n is an integer greater than or equal to 1). Generally, hydrocarbons of low molecular weight, e.g., methane, ethane, and propane, are gases; those of intermediate molecular weight, e.g., hexane, heptane, and octane, are liquids; and those of high molecular weight, e.g., eicosane (C20H42) and polyethylene, are solids. Paraffin is a mixture of high-molecular-weight alkanes; the alkanes are sometimes called the paraffin series.

Alkanes consist of methane, ethane and propane which are generally encountered in a gaseous state, a heavier liquid group which include hexane, heptane and octane and solids like eicosane and polyethylene.


Reference:

The Columbia Encyclopedia; The online version; Columbia University Press

Weapons Against Varroa Destructor

Ross Conrad has done a great job of explaining the different methods of controlling the mite Varroa destructor and keeping it from overwhelming bee hives in his book Natural Beekeeping. Included in the arsenal are grease patties, esential oils, food grade mineral oil, sugar solutions, formic acid, oxalic acid, lactic acid and acetic acid.

Grease patties can be formed from white sugar and vegetable oil with honey or essential oil added to the mix in a ratio of two parts oil to one part sugar.1 The grease appears to form a fine film on bees which makes it difficult for mites to retain their footing. Essential oils, when added to the mix, can be toxic to varroa.

A component of thyme oil known as thymol is very deadly to varroa mites although it is safe for humans. Thymol and other essential oils, when evaporated within a hive, can kill off varroa.2

A mixture that includes food grade mineral oil, beeswax, honey and a solution of thymol in alcohol is another mixture that can be used against varroa mites. The mixture, when soaked into cotton cordage, can be placed on top of a brood nest.3

Sugar esters can kill varroa through suffocation and dehydration resulting from the breakdown of a waxy coating of the body of these mites. A commercial product called Sucrocide takes advantage of this and can be used to treat varroa.4

The organic acids- formic acid, oxalic acid, lactic acid and acetic acid- when mixed and applied properly, also can serve as effective treatments for varroa. An advantage of using these natural acids is that honey can be kept safe for human consumption.5



References:

1. Natural Beekeeping; authored by Ross Conrad; Chelsea Green Publishing; Copyrite 2007; Page 128.

2. Natural Beekeeping; authored by Ross Conrad; Chelsea Green Publishing; Copyrite 2007; Page 130-131.

3. Natural Beekeeping; authored by Ross Conrad; Chelsea Green Publishing; Copyrite 2007; Page 133.

4. Natural Beekeeping; authored by Ross Conrad; Chelsea Green Publishing; Copyrite 2007; Page 134.

5. Natural Beekeeping; authored by Ross Conrad; Chelsea Green Publishing; Copyrite 2007; Page 136-139.

Varied Learning Rates Among Bees

Fast learning bumblebees reap greater nectar rewards tells of the importance of learning rates among bees. Bees which are faster learners have greater ability to collect more nectar from flowers. In tests involving a dozen bee colonies blue and yellow artificial flowers were packed with different levels of nectar. The yellow flowers were provided more nectar to test the ability of bees to overcome their natural predisposition toward blue flowers. Surprisingly there was as much as a five fold difference in learning speeds among the colonies.

Bees are able to sense other cues besides color. They include patterns and scents. Results of the study are published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society