There are Many Varieties of Bees in North America

Many people would be surprised to learn that there are about 3,500 different species of bees in North America; so accustomed have we become to associating the honeybee with bees. An article in Natural History titled Unsung heroines of pollination discusses this and more (May 1997 Vol. 106 Issue 4, p42). The article makes the following points:

* Some species of bees may look more like other insects we know such as wasps, flying ants and fuzzy flies.

* Although differing in appearance from the familiar honeybee such bees resemble the honeybee in their behavior. That is they engage in packing pollen from flowers onto their hind legs. or under the abdomen.

* There are bees that are native to North America which, along with some other insects that visit flowers, are capable of fulfilling the pollination needs of backyard gardens in the USA and even small farms. It is the larger farms that have become honeybee dependent.

* There is an interest in other species of bees, often referred to as pollen bees, because they are better adapted to pollinating certain crops and there has recently been a decline in the population of honeybees.

* The majority of bees, that are native to North America (about 85%), in contrast to honeybees, lead solitary lives. Their nesting locations include hollow plant stems, wooden buildings and the ground.

The Insights of Genius

From: Sir Isaac Newton: The Universal Law of Gravitation

"But as we increase the muzzle velocity for our imaginary cannon, the projectile will travel further and further before returning to earth. Finally, Newton reasoned that if the cannon projected the cannon ball with exactly the right velocity, the projectile would travel completely around the Earth, always falling in the gravitational field but never reaching the Earth, which is curving away at the same rate that the projectile falls. That is, the cannon ball would have been put into orbit around the Earth. Newton concluded that the orbit of the Moon was of exactly the same nature: the Moon continuously "fell" in its path around the Earth because of the acceleration due to gravity, thus producing its orbit."

Newton's thought trail is a mark of his genius. He examines an ordinary occurence- the flight of a projectile and imagines what could happen if velocity were increased. He concludes that there would be a point at which the velocity would produce an orbital effect. In ascertaining this he takes into account the rounded shape of the earth which enables the "continuous fall" concept- the curvature away of the earth matching the rate of the falling projectile. Newton linked his theoretical ponderings to the behavior of real physical entities and in so doing advanced his own comprehension. This subsequently advanced the understanding of humanity; a remarkable consequence of a thought process.

Ever Exacting Theoretical Refinements

With hindsight we sometimes tend to take for granted the brilliance of perceptual breakthroughs. Newton's insightful realization that the force inducing a fruit to fall from a tree was the same as that causing the moon to orbit the earth is an example. A logical continuance was the extrapolation that this force was universal and explained similar phenomenon throughout the universe.

Prior to the realization of Newton's ideas about gravitation Kepler had formulated mathematical descriptions of planetary orbits. Although Kepler did so outside a gravitational framework, his orbital depictions were accurate for solar system models involving planets orbiting the sun. This is due to the fact that in relation to the sun planetary masses are by comparison quite minute. So minute in fact, that the center of the two masses in a planet/sun model lies within the sun itself. Because of this Kepler's third law was a very close approximation of actual planet orbits. Just as Einstein's Theory of General Relativity allowed for more exacting gravitational predictions than Newton's theory, Newton's gravitational theory allowed for more exacting orbital predictions than Kepler.

For two equal celestial bodies the center of mass would lie between them. They would orbit around their common center of mass. While Kepler's laws were a great historic milestone Newton's work furthered our understanding of an underlying force and the manner by which it acted.

The linked webpage Sir Isaac Newton: The Universal Law of Gravitation provides a more complete explanation of Newton's gravitational concepts.

Inhibiting Aversions to Queen Bees

A compound produced by honeybee queens known as homovanillyl alcohol (HVA) may prevent aversions on the part of worker bees as spelled out in a Nature article titled Queen bees avert the sting in the tail Honeybee queens may use scent to stay popular in negative situations (published online: 19 July 2007; | doi:10.1038/news070716-14). Article author Heidi Ledford jokes that politicians would love to get their hands on chemicals like the ones at the disposal of the queens and for good reasons. Workers feed and groom queens and also apparently overlook negative experiences resulting from encounters with queens. Test results from a referenced study indicate that, although workers respond to a nasty encounter, they don't learn to associate it with adversity toward the queen.

The experiment, on which conclusions are based, entailed administering mild electrical shocks that were associated with a specified odor. A stinger extension was an observed effect. After some repetitions stinger responses were induced merely through the sense of smell- except when the odor was associated with the queen. Specifically, exposure to pheromones of the queen, particularly homovanillyl alcohol (HVA), were not linked to the electric shocks.

Experimental findings are consistent with observed beehive behavior. There are worker bees who groom the queen with their proboscises. They also use their antennae to rub the queen. In performing these functions they come in contact with compounds that are found on the surface of the queen's body. In this way queen pheromones can be distributed to other bees in the hive when the queen attendant workers mix with them. This has a calming effect on worker bees. Further reinforcing the point is the observation that young worker bees become less aggressive when a queen is put in the colony.

A Medical Billing Website

A website known as Medical Billing Advocates of America addresses a concern of many Americans- the high cost of healthcare. The mission statement mentions drug companies, hospitals and insurance companies as privilaged entities against whom Americans are forced to struggle. Conspicuously absent from the mix are attorneys and our legal system. Nevertheless, the need to ensure payment of what should be due and nothing more than that, is a legitimate issue. The website can hopefully help ameliorate the plight of Americans facing large health care bills.

Do Not Track

A Yahoo news story disclosed that privacy and consumer organizations are asking that the Federal Trade Commission protect internet users through a do not track list which would prevent others, such as advertisers, from tracking your online activity. It is a long overdue measure needed to protect people's privacy as well as limiting the possiblity that personal information will be used for fraudulent or other illegal purposes.

The model for this is the currently operational do not call registry which protects against unwanted calls from telemarketers. The do not call registry was created in 2003 and now contains about 145 million telephone numbers.

Federal Family Education Loan and Direct Loan Programs

The Federal Family Education Loan (FFEL) and the Direct Loan programs are student loan options known also as Stafford Loans. They are administered by the U.S. Department of Education. Stafford Loans are for students and PLUS loans for parents. This link provides details about the loans.

A primary difference between FFEL and Direct Loan programs is the source of loan funding. Direct Loan Program funds come directly from the federal government whereas funds for FFEL can come from banks, credit unions or other lenders. For both programs loan amounts and eligibility rules are the same. Repayment plans can differ however.

Securing either type of loan requires filling out a FAFSA form. The school a student is attending is involved in the process and informs a student of loan eligibility. Also part of the process is the signing of a promissory note which specifies borrowing conditions and repayment terms. The promissory note is legally binding.

Since FFEL loans require a non-government lender it becomes necessary to locate one. Schools participating in FFEL can supply lists of what are considered preferred lenders but students may opt for a lender not on the list.

The critical issue of how much a student can borrow is related to whether or not one has a subsidized or an unsubsidized loan. Subsidized loans are determined based on financial need. The advantage of a subsidized loan lies in deferrment of loan interest while one is a student and for a six month period that follows leaving school.

A consequence of the difference between a subsidized and an unsubsidized loan is the accumulation of interest from the time the loan is disbursed until repayment in full. In determining eligibility for unsubsidized loans schools subtract the totla amount of other financial aid from the cost of attendance. It is possible to receive both subsidized and unsubsidized loans for the same enrollment period.

Maximum yearly loan amounts for dependent undergraduates are:

$3,500 (for the 2007-08 academic year) for first-year students.
$4,500 (for the 2007-08 academic year) after completing the first year of study.
$5,500 after completing two years of study if the remainder of the program is at least a full academic year.

For both Direct Loan and FFEL programs, payment goes through the school in at least two installments. No installment can be more than half of the loan amount. Usually for first-year undergraduate students and a first-time borrowers, schools cannot disburse the first payment until 30 days after the first day of your enrollment period. This takes into account loan repayment if a student does not begin classes or withdraws during the first 30 days of classes. Schools with cohort default rates of less than 10 percent for each of the three most recent fiscal years for which data are available are exempt the delayed disbursement requirement.

There is a fee of up to 4 percent of the loan. For FFEL or Stafford Loans, part of the fee goes to the federal government, and part goes to the guaranty agency (the organization that administers the FFEL Program in your state). For Direct Stafford Loans, the whole fee goes to the government.

Upon graduation there is a six-month "grace period" before repayment. However interest still accumulates on unsubsidized loans during this period.

The Archimedes Principle

Archimedes Principle explains the displacement of fluid by an object by reference to the concept of buoyancy. More precisely the fluid weight displaced by an object equals the buoyant force on that object. The linked article Physics Tutorial: Archimedes Principle and Battery Indicators provides details. Here's one:

FB=Wfluid

The force of buoyancy equals the weight of the displaced fluid.

Why Archimedes? Because the ancient Greek genius is credited with the discovery. Archimedes is one of the giant intellects of history whose accomplishments were prolific.

This next link titled Buoyancy: Archimedes Principle makes the following important point (quote in blue):

Using the aluminum as our example, it has a specific gravity of 2.8. Water has a specific gravity of 1.0. This means that a cubic centimeter of water would have a mass of 1.0 grams, while aluminum of the same size would have a mass of 2.8 grams. Since the aluminum cube displaces 1 cubic centimeter of water, it has a buoyancy of 1.0 grams. Since buoyancy is a force and not a mass, it must be converted to the proper units, which when multiplied by the acceleration of gravity (980 cm/s2) gives the units of dynes. That is,

(1.0 grams) (980 cm/s2) = 980 grams cm /s2 or dynes

So our aluminum cube immersed in water would not 'weigh' (2.8 x 980) dynes or 2744 dynes. It would weigh less due to the fact it has a buoyant force of (1 x 980) dynes from the water. So it would weigh (2744-980) dynes or 1764 dynes while immersed in the water.

Indeed there is a need for a proper conversion as buoyancy is a force and units are expressed in dynes.

This next site is my favorite of the group. This linked article has visual aids combined with ample explanations addressing various aspects of buoyancy. Volume is discussed. An example of three objects of equal volume but different weights is cited to illustrate and explain their different behavoir, in response to equal buoyant force, upon release in water. There are equal buoyant forces on objects having the same volume.

An equation can be set up to determine the volume of an object in water. The density of water is known- 1 gram/cm3.

At the same website view this page to study equations related to viscosity and sinking objects.

Archimedes's Principle explains that apparent weight of block x when x is immersed in water is the difference if the weight of the displaced water.

Incidentally, do not presume that whether or not an object floats is dependent on its density being less than water. Surface tension enables a steel needle to float and a steel chip can likewise float. In the case of the chip it floats because it displaces a volume of water that equals its weight.1

The mathematical equation relevant to finding the weight of displaced fluid is:

W = mg and mass can be found by:

m = pV where p is the density of the liquid. Finally,

W = pVg (credit (2) follows below)



References:

1. Physics by Jonathan S. Wolf; Published by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.; copywrite 1996.

2. Ibid.

Answering the Question: "Is Belief In Divine Creation Rational?"

David Anderson, a fellow blogger who also posts entries at Intelligently Sequenced (as do I) authored the blog entry Is Belief In Divine Creation Rational? I'm reproducing it here. You can follow the links. David's writing appears in blue:

This should be of interest to anyone involved in the debate over evolution, intelligent design, creationism, atheism, materialism, etcetera. (Apologies if you've already seen it over at BCSE Revealed.)

As most of you will know, in my "day job" I am a Christian minister. I have just put online a major new audio-visual presentation: "Is belief in divine creation rational? (responding to atheist claims)".

http://david.dw-perspective.org.uk/is-belief-in-creation-rational

The talk is 77 minutes long, accompanied by slides (combined courtesy of Google video), and goes over quite a wide field - rationality, morality, laws (or not?) of logic, Richard Dawkins, the scientific method, world views, the definition of the mind, etc. It's meant to be popular level but stimulating for anyone. You can watch the presentation with audio, or download it to your iPod, etcetera. Lots of links and resources provided. Of course it's a lot more heavyweight than the previous Richard Dawkins parable, but much more stimulating and rewarding and hopefully life-changing for it.

If you like it, please link it. Put it on your blogs, websites, mailing lists, etcetera. As with the previous Richard Dawkins parable, the success of this depends on it getting linked.